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Teaching English - Language Teacher Education – An Integrated Programme for EFL Teacher Training

Contents
PART I. OVERVIEW
Language Teacher Education: an Integrated Approach
ROOER BOWERS
PART II. BACKGROUND
CDELT: The First Ten Years Introducing ELT Curriculum Change
R. H. STRAKER COOK
PART III. PRE-SERVICE

Second Language Learning Theories (2nd Edition)

This text presents an accessible and concise overview of the most current theories and approaches of second language learning. It provides an up-to-date introduction to the key concepts and issues, as well as a brief history of this area of research. Written for students coming to the study of linguistics for the first time, the book covers a wide range of approaches, including linguistic, cognitive, and social.

Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice

These days the trend in education has been to shift the focus of classes from the teachers to the students. The idea is that by taking responsibility for their own education and by learning by doing and working with others, students will be able to learn skills that will stay with them for the rest of their lives. On the other hand, teacher-centered lectures will only cause the students to cram for exams and quickly forget what they learned as soon as the exams are finished.

Classroom Dynamics by Jill Hadfield

"Classroom Dynamics", written Jill Hadfield in set Resource Books For Teachers, contains a huge number of ways presented to make a lesson interesting and dynamical, to create in group of students an atmosphere of goodwill and friendly mutual aid, to make students learn, and to make the most from work on pairs and small groups.
The book consists of three sections:

Effective Learning in Classrooms

Presents case studies and examples from practitioners and examines the four major dimensions of advancing real learning: active learning, collaborative learning, learner-driven learning, learning about learning.

Doing Task-Based Teaching - Dave Willis and Jane Willis

According to the authors, Doing Task Based Teaching was written for "language teachers who want to gain a better understanding of how task-based teaching (TBT) works in practice". With contributions from over thirty teachers in twelve countries, the real value of the book is that on top of providing a thorough introduction to and overview of TBT, it also offers 257 pages of practical advice and guidance on how to design, create, teach and evaluate task-based lessons and activities.

Reflective Teaching

Good teachers are always learning…learning from students, learning from their own trial and error, learning from peers and colleagues, learning from mentors and supervisors, and learning from academic information in their field. Good teachers continue to learn throughout their careers. This is called “life‐long learning” or “ongoing professional development.”

One tool that can help teachers develop professionally is known as “reflective teaching practice.” Reflective teaching is the focus of this final module.

Peer Observation in Teaching Practices

Classroom observation can take different forms. The two most common are:

Summative observation, in which another teacher or an administrator observes the class. The purpose for this is evaluative and may result a rating of some kind.
And, formative observation, in which two teachers, or “peers,” do a “friendly” observation of each other’s classes. The purpose is to improve teaching practices and to engage in a systematic form of professional development.

The focus in this module is on formative or peer observation. Formative observation can benefit both the observed teacher and the teacher doing the observation. In order to do so, it must be carefully organized. We will follow a teachers through the three phases of a successful observation:

First, preparing for the observation.
Then, observing in the classroom.
And, finally, the post‐observation debriefing.

Younger Learners

Younger learners are from 4‐10 years of age, and from kindergarten through 5th grade. Younger learners are active and creative. They learn through doing. They are social, they like to play, and they have the ability to develop the rules of language themselves, as they play with different language content and input. They also have a short attention span, and they need repetition and clear direction.

Introduction

The focus in this topic is on teaching younger learners. In the class you saw at the beginning of this module, the teacher used a song to start the class and get learners to focus. This is an effective management technique for younger learners.

Alternative Assessment

Alternative Assessment

There are various ways a teacher uses to assess her students' capability about a certain material of teaching. Alternative assessment is a way to directly evaluate learners’ language skills. A paper‐pencil test shows knowledge about the language. Alternative assessment shows learners’ ability to use the language.

There are many reasons for using alternative assessment techniques. With alternative assessment:

Authentic Materials

A teacher can interest students by using authentic materials. Authentic materials are used by native speakers of a language for actual communication. Authentic materials are good tools for language teaching and learning because they are:

Interesting.
They use real language.
They can be chosen for individual
They illustrate accurate use of language in the target
And, they help students learn how to get as much information as they can, even if they can’t understand everything, or even very much.

There are things to take into accounts before a teacher uses authentic materials, they are:

Individual Learner Differences

Individual Learner Differences

Learners in one classroom are both similar and, at the same time, different. A learner‐centered approach to teaching requires teachers to understand this duality, and to be aware of the different ways in which students learn. Some differences are easy to see or discover, such as…age…gender…socioeconomic conditions…and level of education.

Other differences may be more difficult to identify, including:

Critical and Creative Thinking Skills

Introduction

In this module, we’ll take a look at what one teacher is doing to bring critical and creative thinking into her classes. Her students are learning to take a “think locally and act globally” approach to problem‐solving and new areas of inquiry in their learning as they develop their language skills.

This is the first week in a large class of young adults. The teacher is using a content‐based approach with a Mass Media theme as a basis for the day’s activities. She is assessing students’ skills as they participate in and complete a series of tasks. Observe the sequence of activities that she has students do over the course of the class. Ask yourself, “In what ways are critical and creative thinking involved?’

The followings are examples to illustrate how a teacher can apply this step;

Learning Strategies

The goal of teaching strategies is to create autonomous learners, learners who can learn by themselves inside and outside the classroom. Research and classroom practices are evolving in many directions to try to better understand and facilitate learning for students of all ages. In general, successful language learners tend to select strategies that work well together, according to the requirements of the language task. These learners can easily explain the strategies they use and why they use them.

Module Focus: Introduction

In this module, we will focus on some key features of two classes of learning strategies:

Language learning and communication strategies.
Cognitive and metacognitive strategies.

Managing Large Classes

In recent years, the demand for English has increased. Schools around the world have responded by adding more English classes into the curriculum. Class sizes can be quite large and, in some cases, are growing even larger. Classes of 50‐75 students are not uncommon. Many people in education are asking themselves:

How do large classes affect an instructor’s ability to teach, and a student’s ability to learn?
And, how do large classes affect the quality of education?

Teachers may not be able to answer these as research questions, but they can examine pedagogical techniques and classroom management practices that make the best of large classroom situations.

Module Focus: Introduction

In this module we'll look at classroom management from the perspective of:

Giving Learners Feedback

One important distinction to make when giving learner feedback is that of formative vs. summative evaluation. Formative evaluation is a way of giving students feedback along the way. It is the answer to the questions, “How am I doing so far?” and “How can I improve?” Summative evaluation includes those kinds of evaluation that summarize a student’s overall performance. For example, the final grade for a course.

In this module, we'll look at some:

General “Dos and Don’ts” for formative learner feedback.
And, some specific techniques for giving feedback on work that students have produced when the primary focus is on oral skills, and on writing skills.

#1 Viewing Points: General “Dos and Don'ts"

Some general guidelines for feedback are to….

Pair and Group Work

The focus in this module is on Pair and Group Work. Pair and Group Work incorporates principles and themes from the Cooperative Learning and Collaborative Learning theoretical frameworks.

Module Focus: Introduction, Rationale

Some reasons for using pair and group work are…

To accommodate individual differences and learning styles.
To provide opportunities for different types of cognitive involvement.
To allow for unexpected learning.
And, to motivate learners and increase time‐on‐task by using a variety of engaging and interesting activities.

In observing or teaching a class, there are some questions that help a teacher determine what kind of activity will do done. The questions are…

Integrating Skills

The focus in this module is on Integrating Skills. We usually talk about four primary language skills: receptive skills, listening and reading; and, productive skills, speaking and writing. There are also sub‐skills, which are a necessary foundation for the four primary skills: grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and non‐verbal skills. In this module, we will look at some real classroom examples of integrating skills, using one or more graphic organizers for analysis.

Module Focus: Introduction

Some reasons for using an integrated skills approach are…

That the use of language for meaningful purposes requires the use of integrated language skills.
And, that each skill reinforces the other skills.

In addition...

Using “real” or “natural” language production and reception in classes is a good match for the social interactions that occur in communicative activities; and,
The more interesting the activities are, the more likely they are to motivate the students, and the more likely they are to produce greater language retention.

#1 Viewing Points: Integrating Skills, Example A

Video segment #1. Observe the following class. Look for answers to the questions…

What skills were integrated, and how?
What kinds of activities did the teacher use, and how did they support the integration of skills?

Building Language Awareness

In this post, let's look at how teachers should focus on building language awareness. The focus in Module 1 was on the importance of contextualizing language. In Module 2, the focus is on the need to be aware of the specific language within that context. That is, the awareness, the attention, and the noticing of the particular features of language that add to learning. This means that it is important to pay attention to language form, for example, grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. However, teaching these formal aspects of language through rules, exercises, memorization, and drills does not appear to be entirely effective. Research shows that selectively focusing on aspects of language use within a given context can be even more effective.

Language awareness is the name for this kind of focus. And, because language awareness is a focus on the pragmatic uses of language, the language input must be in context. Two additional requirements of language awareness are that:

Contextualizing Language

Contextualization is the meaningful use of language for real communicative purposes. It helps students understand how language users construct language in a given context. Teachers can contextualize language instruction by organizing the content of the language curriculum according to themes or topics. These themes or topics work best when they are threaded throughout the course of study.

Module Focus: Introduction

Some additional reasons for using contextualized language are that…

Action Research

Action research can make you a “student of teaching” (John Dewey).
Action research or Classroom Action Research has been enacted in many classrooms throughout the world. I myself conduct several research with this type of research. In this post, I’d like to inform the readers about what an action research is, why teachers should do action research, what the steps in the action research process are, where your research questions come from, and what evidence you can take to see whether your solution has worked out or not.

What is action research?

Tree or Three? (Elementary)

EASY TO USE Full teaching rubrics allow the material to be used both for self-study and classroom use. Stand-alone units allow you to focus on sounds which you find difficult.
SYSTEMATIC Each unit offers comprehensive practice of sounds, with additional work on stress and intonation.
MORE AUDIO Four audio CDs give lots of listening and pronunciation practice.
FULL COLOUR Attractive full colour artwork aids understanding and makes the material memorable.

Ship or Sheep? - 3rd Edition (Intermediate)

EASY TO USE Full teaching rubrics allow the material to be used both for self-study and classroom use. Stand-alone units allow you to focus on sounds which you find difficult.
SYSTEMATIC Each unit offers comprehensive practice of sounds, with additional work on stress and intonation.
MORE AUDIO Four audio CDs give lots of listening and pronunciation practice.
FULL COLOUR Attractive full colour artwork aids understanding and makes the material memorable.

Phonemic Chart

The following phonemic chart is a software named "Sounds Right". Sounds Right is the British Council's first pronunciation chart for learners and teachers worldwide.

Features:

Pure vowels are arranged the same way as in the IPA chart: according to mouth shape (left to right, lips wide / round - top to bottom, jaw closed / open).
Diphthongs are grouped in rows according to their second sound.

Pronunciation Games

This book contains a collection of varied and imaginative activities for the practice of English pronunciation. the activities can be used as awareness raisong activities or for controlled practice or revision.

Introducing English Pronunciation: A Teacher's Guide to Tree or Three? and Ship or Sheep?

Introducing English Pronunciation provides teachers with all the information and guidance they need to use Tree or Three? and Ship or Sheep? enjoyably and successfully in the classroom. Detailed notes are provided for each unit of both books, incorporating suggested teaching procedures and ideas for additional practice. One chapter lists the errors likely to be made by students of different mother tongues and, for students not included in this list, a diagnostic pronunciation test is included.

How to Teach Pronunciation [ book + Audio]

A straightforward primer on the theory and teaching of pronunciation, this text offers detailed analysis and teaching techniques for vowels, consonants, stress and intonation, and the features of fluent speech.
The How to…series offers practical teaching ideas within a clear, theoretical framework.
An audio CD with spoken examples of sounds, words and phrases from the book puts the theories examined into a clear context.

Speak English Like an American (Book & Audio CD set)

If you already speak English, but now would like to start speaking even better, then Speak English Like an American is for you. This book and CD set is designed to help native speakers of any language speak better English. Over 300 of the most-used American English idioms and phrases are presented in engaging dialogue, with plenty of usage examples, illustrations, and lot…more
The audio CD contains all of the dialogues in the book.
It gives me the ability to use and understand casual expressions, or idioms, which normally won’t be learned in a standard textbooks but I meet them in newspapers, magazines, TV shows … etc.

American Accent Training

In the book the present American pronunciation is well presented. All the exercises given in the textbook are connected directly with 5 audio disks, the audio will help you to compare various versions of a pronunciation and to fulfill true techniques of a pronunciation of each of the sounds meeting in language.
Also the fundamental importance in the textbook is given a proper accent in various complex words. Complexity of exercises is varied from complex instances up to elementary. It is a wonderful approach for teachers, as the additional grant. At the moment it is probably the best rated book of a pure American pronunciation.

How to Be a Brilliant English Teacher

How to be a Brilliant English Teacher addresses many of the anxieties that English teachers face in the classroom and offers focused and realistic solutions. Packed with practical advice drawn from the author's extensive experience, it will transform your teaching.

Anecdotal and readable, teachers can dip into this book for innovative lesson ideas or read it from cover to cover as a short, enjoyable course which uncovers exciting teaching principles in successful practical experience. Aspects of teaching English covered include:

Discussion Starters: Speaking Fluency Activities for Advanced ESL/EFL Students

One of the most common problems facing ESL teachers is the advanced speaking class in which the most confident students dominate the discussion and the weaker students quickly withdraw. Discussion Starters is designed to balance the oral participation of all the students in the class and thus promote an environment in which everyone has not only a chance but a real need to speak out.

Let’s Talk Board Games

These board games are designed for students to review and practice what they have learned in class. Each board game covers material from four units of the Let’s Talk course.

For and Against: An Oral Practice Book for Advanced Students of English by L.G. Alexander

1. ’It’s high time men ceased to regard women as second-class citizens’
2 ‘World governments should conduct serious campaigns against smoking’
3 ‘Television is doing irreparable harm’
4 ‘Any form of education other than co-education is simply unthinkable’
5 ‘Camping is the ideal way of spending a holiday’
6 ‘New fashions in clothing are created solely for the commercial exploitation of women’

Heinemann ELT Hits

Heinemann ELT Hits Photocopiable
Author: Ludlow , K. & Reilly , P.
Publisher: Macmillan
Format: P/Bk
ISBN-10: 0435251007
ISBN-13: 9780435251000

Expository Writing

Motivation makes all the difference. And what's more motivating than the expectation of success? The instructions are clear and to the point, so students can quickly get down to writing practice. Helpful prompts pack the lesson pages including illustrations, examples, and sample responses.

Descriptive Writing

- Incremental teaching method
- Basic grammar review pages interspersed with regular lesson pages
- Easy-to-use answer keys
- "Real world" themes give relevance to academic instruction
- A special, culminating project at the end of each workbook
- Airy page design teams with low reading level to encourage your struggling students

Writing Games

A fantastic selection of pair work, small group and whole class games and activities to help your students develop understanding and fluency in a real, communicative way.
* Practice in different types of writing including advertisements, letters., descriptions, articles, notes and poems
* A wide variety of activity types such as matching, guessing, exchange and reply and descriptions
* Includes full teaching notes

Paragraph Writing

Paragraph Writing takes students from sentence formation to paragraph writing through a process approach. This not only develops students’ paragraph writing skills, but also encourages them to become independent and creative writers. The back of the Student’s Book contains peer review forms and a grammar reference section.
This book provides students with:

Pictures for Writing 1

English Grammar Book: Pictures for writing is a very useful book to either elicit grammar points or practice a grammar points being taught. It contains some chapters; present simple, past simple, etc.

This book can also be used to increase students’ creativity in writing.

Picture Writing 2

This book can also be used to increase students’ creativity in writing.

Singing Grammar - Teaching Grammar through Songs

Singing Grammar is part of the Cambridge Copy Collection. It is a resource book of supplementary materials for the teaching of grammar through the medium of song. It contains eighteen songs, each with a specific grammar focus, and is suitable for students from elementary to intermediate level. For each of the songs there is a clear page of teaching notes followed by a motivating song worksheet, a grammar exercise page and a fun grammar game for classroom use. The material is especially suitable for younger learners but could also be used successfully with adults.

A Communicative Grammar of English (1st edition)

A Communicative Grammar of English was first published in 1975, since then the book has established itself as a grammar innovative in approach, reliable in coverage, and clear in its explanations. It is now available in this fully revised and redesigned third edition to provide up-to-date and accessible help to teachers, advanced learners and undergraduates students of English. A completely new Workbook co-authored by ELT specialists Edward Woods and Rudy Coppieters will also accompany this edition.

Grammar Dictation by Ruth Wajnryb (Resource Books for Teachers)

The book contains a variety of texts for dictogloss exercises, arranged topically, according to the grammatical structure(s) trained, and according to the level of difficulty. It will be useful for busy teachers and those who want to try something different in their classrooms.

Games For Grammar Practice: A Resource Book Of Grammar Games And Interactive Activities

Games for Grammar Practice is a teacher’s resource book containing a carefully designed selection of over forty games and activities, for intensive and interactive grammar practice with basic to advanced learners of English. The activities are designed to promote intensive and interactive practice with learners of all ages from elementary to advanced level. Photocopiable pages and step-by-step instructions provide instant supplementary activities for busy teachers. The emphasis on peer interaction and cooperation helps students find grammar practice meaningful and rewarding. The grammar areas covered in the book are all commonly found in courses, making the activities easy to slot into a lesson. It follows closely the grammar syllabus of most EFL/ESL courses, it is a most useful complement to many course and grammar books in use today.

More Grammar Games

More Grammar Games
Mario Rinvolucri/Paul Davis

This resource book for teachers contains an exciting collection of activities which present and practise vital grammatical content in an original way. Each game is clearly introduced with a summary specifying the area of grammar to be practised, the level it is aimed at, the time required and the material needed. The activity is then presented using a step-by-step approach.

Grammar Games

This is a resource book for teachers containing material for a wide variety of games which can be played in the English language classroom. Each game focusses on one or more points of English grammar. A specification is given for each game, describing its level, materials needed, grammar points practised and time required. Grammar Games enables teachers to integrate grammar practice into their classes in novel and motivating ways:

Will have done

We can use 'will have done' to talk about what will have been achieved by a certain moment in time.

We'll have been in these offices for eight years next month.
She'll have visited ten countries in twelve days by the time she gets back.
I'll have finished this project by Friday.

If we want to emphasize the continuity of the activity, we can use the continuous form.

I'll have been working here for 35 years by the time I retire.
She'll have been driving for more than fifteen hours straight by the time she gets here.
They'll have been working with us for 15 years by the end of this year.

Will be doing

We can use 'will be doing' to talk about something that will be in progress at a particular moment in the future.

This time next week, I'll be sitting on the beach in Barbados.
I'll be thinking about you all back in the office – and I'll be laughing.
We'll be enjoying ourselves too, boss. We won't be doing any work while you are not here.

We can use 'will be doing' to talk about future events that are fixed or decided.

I'll be visiting your country on a regular basis. In fact, I'm going to be coming next month.
He'll be looking after the factory until we can appoint a new manager.
They'll be thinking about this very carefully over the next few months.

Can have / Could have

We can use 'could have' to talk about something somebody was capable of doing but didn't do.

I could have gone to Oxford University but I preferred Harvard.
She could have married him but she didn't want to.
They could have bought a house here 20 years ago but chose not to.

Often, there is a sense of criticism.

You could have phoned me to let me know.
They could have helped me instead of just sitting there.
I could have done more to help you. Sorry.

We can use 'couldn't have' to talk about something we were not capable of doing.

I couldn't have managed without you.
I couldn't have got the job. He was always going to appoint his nephew.
I couldn't have enjoyed myself more. Thank you for a lovely day.

We can use 'could have' to speculate about what has happened. (We can also use 'may have' or 'might have' in these situations.)

Should have

We can use 'should have' to talk about past events that did not happen.

I should have let her know what was happening but I forgot.
He should have sent everybody a reminder by email.
They should have remembered that their guests don't eat pork.

We can also use 'should have' to speculate about events that may or may not have happened.

She should have got the letter this morning. I expect she'll give us a call about it later.
He should have arrived at his office by now. Let's try ringing him.
They should have all read that first email by this stage. It's time to send the next one.

Have something done

If you 'have something done', you get somebody else to do something for you.

I'm going to have my hair cut.
She's having her house redecorated.
I'm having a copy of the report sent to you

In informal English, we can replace 'have' by 'get'.

We're getting a new telephone system installed.
They will be getting the system repaired as quickly as they can.
I got the bill sent direct to the company.

Suppose 2

'Supposed to be' can be used to mean 'it is said/believed'.

The new James Bond movie is supposed to be excellent.
He is supposed to have been rude to Mark but I don't believe it.
It is supposed to be the best restaurant in town.

'Supposed to be' can also be used to talk about what is arranged, intended or expected. It is a bit like 'should'.

I'm supposed to get to work by 8.
John is supposed to turn off all the lights when he leaves.
I'm supposed to pay my rent on the first of the month.
It's not supposed to be here.

Suppose

We often use 'suppose' to mean 'imagine' or 'guess'

I suppose you'll be meeting Danielle when you go to Paris?
When you weren't there, I supposed you must have been held up.
I suppose you two know each other?

Notice that 'suppose' is not normally used in the continuous form. We do not usually say 'I am supposing'.

Now I suppose we'll have to do something else.
We're waiting for John and I suppose he must be stuck in traffic.
At this moment I suppose it doesn't matter.

Question tags

We use tags in spoken English but not in formal written English.

They are not really questions but are a way of asking the other person to make a comment and so keep the conversation open.

Making a tag is very mechanical. To make a tag, use the first auxiliary. If there is no auxiliary, use do, does or did. With a positive sentence, make a negative tag and with a negative sentence, make a positive tag.

It's beautiful, isn't it?
He has been, hasn't he?
You can, can't you?
It must be, mustn't it?
You know him, don’t you?
He finished it, didn't he?
He will come, won't he?
It isn't very good, is it?
It hasn't rained, has it?
It can't be, can it?
Jenny doesn't know James, does she?
They didn't leave, did they?
He won’t do it, will he?

Notice these:

Asking questions 2

In the section Questions 1, we looked at how to ask direct questions. To make a question, we invert the order of the subject and the first auxiliary verb.

Where is Johnny?
Has he found it yet?

If there is no auxiliary, use part of the verb 'to do'. For example:

What time did he arrive?
How often do you play tennis?

However, when we ask for information, we often say 'Do you know…?' or 'Could you tell me….?' These are indirect questions and more polite.

Asking questions 1

The basic rule for asking questions in English is straightforward: Invert the order of the subject and the first auxiliary verb.

It is snowing. = Is it snowing?
He can speak German. = Can he speak German?
They have lived here a long time. = Have they lived here a long time?
She will arrive at ten o'clock. = Will she arrive at ten o'clock?
He was driving fast. = Was he driving fast?
You have been smoking. = Have you been smoking?

If there is no auxiliary, use part of the verb 'to do'.

You speak fluent French. = Do you speak fluent French?
She lives in Brussels. = Does she live in Brussels?
They lived in Manchester. = Did they live in Manchester?
He had an accident. = Did he have an accident?

Used to

Used to do

We use 'used to' for something that happened regularly in the past but no longer happens.

I used to smoke a packet a day but I stopped two years ago.
Ben used to travel a lot in his job but now, since his promotion, he doesn't.
I used to drive to work but now I take the bus.

We also use it for something that was true but no longer is.

There used to be a cinema in the town but now there isn't.
She used to have really long hair but she's had it all cut off.
I didn't use to like him but now I do.

'Used to do' is different from 'to be used to doing' and 'to get used to doing'

to be used to doing

We use 'to be used to doing' to say that something is normal, not unusual.

I'm used to living on my own. I've done it for quite a long time.
Hans has lived in England for over a year so he is used to driving on the left now.
They've always lived in hot countries so they aren't used to the cold weather here.

to get used to doing

We use 'to get used to doing' to talk about the process of something becoming normal for us.

I didn't understand the accent when I first moved here but I quickly got used to it.
She has started working nights and is still getting used to sleeping during the day.
I have always lived in the country but now I'm beginning to get used to living in the city.

Had better

We use “had better” plus the infinitive without “to” to give advice. Although “had” is the past form of “have”, we use “had better” to give advice about the present or future.

You'd better tell her everything.
I'd better get back to work.
We'd better meet early.

The negative form is “had better not”.

You'd better not say anything.
I'd better not come.
We'd better not miss the start of his presentation.

We use “had better” to give advice about specific situations, not general ones. If you want to talk about general situations, you must use “should”.

Wish

Let's start off with the easy part. ' I wish to' can mean the same as 'I want to' but it is much, much more formal and much, much less common.

I wish to make a complaint.
I wish to see the manager.

You can also use 'wish' with a noun to 'offer good wishes'.

I wish you all the best in your new job.
We wish you a merry Christmas.

Notice that when you want to offer good wishes using a verb, you must use 'hope ' and not 'wish'.

We wish you the best of luck.
We hope you have the best of luck.
I wish you a safe and pleasant journey.
I hope you have a safe and pleasant journey.

However, the main use of 'wish' is to say that we would like things to be different from what they are, that we have regrets about the present situation.

I wish I was rich.
He wishes he lived in Paris.
They wish they'd chosen a different leader.

Third conditional

We can use the Third Conditional to talk about 'impossible' conditions, impossible because they are in the past and we cannot change what has happened.

If I had worked harder at school, I would have got better grades.
If I had had time, I would have gone to see him. But I didn't have time.
If we had bought that house, we would have had to rebuild the kitchen.
If we had caught the earlier train, we would have got there on time but we were late.

Second Conditional

The Second Conditional is used to talk about 'impossible' situations.

If we were in London today, we would be able to go to the concert in Hyde Park.
If I had millions dollars, I'd give a lot to charity.
If there were no hungry people in this world, it would be a much better place.
If everyone had clean water to drink, there would be a lot less disease.

Note that after I / he/ she /it we often use the subjunctive form 'were' and not 'was'. (Some people think that 'were' is the only 'correct' form but other people think 'was' is equally 'correct' .)

If she were happy in her job, she wouldn't be looking for another one.
If I lived in Japan, I'd have sushi every day.
If they were to enter our market, we'd have big problems.

The first conditional

We use the First Conditional to talk about future events that are likely to happen.

If we take John, he'll be really pleased.
If you give me some money, I'll pay you back tomorrow.
If they tell us they want it, we'll have to give it to them.
If Mary comes, she'll want to drive.

The 'if' clause can be used with different present forms.

If I go to New York again, I'll buy you a souvenir from the Empire State Building.
If he's feeling better, he'll come.
If she hasn't heard the bad news yet, I'll tell her.

Zero Conditional

When we talk about things that are generally or always true, we can use:

If/When/Unless plus a present form PLUS present simple or imperative

If he gets there before me, ask him to wait.
When you fly budget airline, you have to pay for your drinks and snacks.
Unless you need more space, a small car is big enough for one person.

Note that we are not talking about a specific event but something which is generally true.

Must or Have to

We can use 'must' to show that we are certain something is true. We are making a logical deduction based upon some clear evidence or reason.

There's no heating on. You must be freezing.
You must be worried that she is so late coming home.
I can't remember what I did with it. I must be getting old.
It must be nice to live in Florida.

We also use 'must' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'must' this usually means that some personal circumstance makes the obligation necessary (and the speaker almost certainly agrees with the obligation.)

I must go to bed earlier.
They must do something about it.
You must come and see us some time.
I must say, I don't think you were very nice to him.

We can also use 'have to' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'have to' this usually means that some external circumstance makes the obligation necessary.

I have to arrive at work at 9 sharp. My boss is very strict.
We have to give him our answer today or lose out on the contract.
You have to pass your exams or the university will not accept you.
I have to send a report to Head Office every week.

In British English, we often use 'have got to' to mean the same as 'have to'.

I've got to take this book back to the library or I'll get a fine.
We've got to finish now as somebody else needs this room.

We can also use ' will have to' to talk about strong obligations. Like 'must' this usually means that that some personal circumstance makes the obligation necessary. (Remember that 'will' is often used to show 'willingness'.)

I'll have to speak to him.
We'll have to have lunch and catch up on all the gossip.
They'll have to do something about it.
I'll have to get back to you on that.

As you can see, the differences between the present forms are sometimes very small and very subtle. However, there is a huge difference in the negative forms.

We use 'mustn't' to express strong obligations NOT to do something.
We mustn't talk about it. It's confidential.
I mustn't eat chocolate. It's bad for me.
You mustn't phone me at work. We aren't allowed personal calls.
They mustn't see us talking or they'll suspect something.

Should 2

We can use 'should' after 'reporting verbs' such as
demand insist propose recommend suggest

He demanded that we should pay for the repair.
She insisted that she should pay for the meal.
I have proposed that he should take charge of the organization.
The committee recommends that Jane should be appointed.
We have suggested that Michael should be given a reward for his hard work.

However, it is also possible to say exactly the same thing by omitting the 'should' and just using the infinitive form without 'to' . Some people call this the 'subjunctive' form.

He demanded that we pay for the repair.
She insisted that she pay for the meal.
I have proposed that he take charge of the organization.
The committee recommends that Jane be appointed.
We have suggested that Michael be given a reward for his hard work.

We can use 'should' after various adjectives. Typical examples are :
funny interesting natural odd strange surprised surprising typical

It's funny that you should say that. I was thinking exactly the same thing.
It's interesting that they should offer him the job. Not an obvious choice.
It's natural that you should be anxious. Nobody likes speaking in public.
Isn't it odd that he should be going to the same tiny hotel? What a coincidence.
It's strange that you should think so. Nobody else does.

Should

We use 'should' for giving advice.

You should speak to him about it.
He should see a doctor.
We should ask a lawyer.

We use 'should' to give an opinion or a recommendation.

He should resign now.
We should invest more in Asia.
They should do something about this terrible train service.

'Should' expresses a personal opinion and is much weaker and more personal than 'must' or 'have to'. It is often introduced by ' I think'.

I think they should replace him.
I don't think they should keep the contract.
Do you think we should tell her.

May / might

may

We can use 'may' to ask for permission. However this is rather formal and not used very often in modern spoken English

May I borrow your pen?
May we think about it?
May I go now?

We use 'may' to suggest something is possible

It may rain later today.
I may not have time to do it today.
Pete may come with us

might

We use 'might' to suggest a small possibility of something. Often we read that 'might' suggests a smaller possibility that 'may', there is in fact little difference and 'might is more usual than 'may' in spoken English.

She might be at home by now but it's not sure at all.
It might rain this afternoon.
I might not have time to go to the shops for you.
I might not go.

For the past, we use 'might have'.

He might have tried to call while I was out.
I might have dropped it in the street.

Could

'Could' can be used to talk about the past, the present or the future.

'Could' is a past form of 'can'

When I was living in Boston, I could walk to work.
He phoned to say he couldn't come.
I could see him clearly but I couldn't hear him and then the videoconference line went dead.

'Could' is used to make polite requests. We can also use 'can' for these but 'could' is more polite.

Could you help me, please?
Could you lend me some money?
Could I have a lift?
Could I bother you for a moment?

If we use 'could' in reply to these requests, it suggests that we do not really want to do it. If you agree to the request, it is better to say 'can'.

Of course I can.
I could help you if it's really necessary but I'm really busy right now.
I could lend you some money but I'd need it back tomorrow without fail.
I could give you a lift as far as Birmingham.

'Could' is used to talk about theoretical possibility and is similar in meaning to 'might'.

It could rain later. Take an umbrella.
He could be there by now.
Could he be any happier?
It could be Sarah's.

Can

We use 'can' to talk about 'possibility'.

Can you do that?
I can't manage to do that.
You can leave your car in that parking space.
You cannot smoke in here.

Notice that there are two negative forms: 'can't' and 'cannot'. These mean exactly the same thing. When we are speaking, we usually say 'can't'.

We use 'can' to talk about 'ability'.

I can speak French.
I can't drive.

We use 'can' to ask for and give permission. (We also use 'may' for this but is more formal and much less common.)

Can I speak to you or are you too busy?
You can use my phone.
You can't come in.

We use 'can' in offers, requests and instructions.

Can I help?
Can you give me a hand?
When you finish that, you can take out the garbage.

We use 'can' with 'see' 'hear' 'feel' 'smell' 'taste' to talk about something which is happening now . (Where you would use the present continuous with most other verbs.)

I can smell something burning.
Can you hear that noise?
I can't see anything.

We can use 'can't' for deduction. The opposite of 'can't' in this context is 'must'.

You can't be hungry. You've just eaten.
You must be hungry. You haven't eaten anything all day.
He was in London one hour ago when I spoke to him. He can't be here yet.

The -ing form

The –ing form can be used like a noun, like an adjective or like a verb.

Smoking is forbidden.
I have a long working day.
I don't like dancing.

When it is used like a noun it may or may not have an article before it.

Marketing is a very inexact science.
The marketing of the product will continue for a few months yet.

It can also be part of a 'noun phrase'.

Speaking to an audience is always stressful.
Swimming after work is very relaxing.

In formal English, we would use a possessive with the –ing form. In informal English, many people do not.

I'm angry about his missing the meeting.
Do you mind my coming?

As an adjective, the –ing form can be used before a noun.

I was met by a welcoming party at the airport.
Let's go to the meeting room.

The –ing form is used after prepositions.

Before leaving, you need to speak to Sarah.
After discussing it with her, I've changed my mind.
Instead of feeling sorry for yourself, do some work for charity.

Notice that when 'to' is used as a preposition, it is followed by the –ing form.

I don't object to working this Sunday.
I'm looking forward to seeing him again.
I'm used to working long hours.

There are many verb + -ing combinations. Here are some common ones:

I admit telling her.
I appreciate having the raise.
I avoid speaking to him.
I consider blowing your nose in public to be wrong.
I delayed coming until the last possible moment.
He denied telling her.
I detest going to parties.
I enjoy dancing.
I feel like having a party.
I've finished writing the report.
I've given up going to the gym.
I can't help thinking about it.
I can't imagine ever leaving this company.
I don't mind doing that.
He put off talking to her as long as he could.
I can't stand drinking beer.

The Passive

We use the active form to say what the subject does. For example:

I speak English every day at work.
I repaired the flat tire on the car.

We use the passive form to say what happens to people and things, to say what is done to them. For example:

English is spoken here.
The car is being repaired.

We use the passive form when we don't know who did the action. For example:

The car was damaged while it was parked on the street.
The shirts were made in Turkey.

We use the passive form when what was done is more important than who did it. For example:

It was approved by Gerry last week.
I was informed by the Human Resources Manager only two days ago.

The imperative

We can use the imperative to give a direct order.

Take that chewing gum out of your mouth.
Stand up straight.
Give me the details.

We can use the imperative to give instructions.

Open your book.
Take two tablets every evening.
Take a left and then a right.

We can use the imperative to make an invitation.

Come in and sit down. Make yourself at home.
Please start without me. I'll be there shortly.
Have a piece of this cake. It's delicious.

We can use the imperative on signs and notices.

Push.
Do not use.
Insert one dollar.

We can use the imperative to give friendly informal advice.

Speak to him. Tell him how you feel.
Have a quiet word with her about it.
Don't go. Stay at home and rest up. Get some sleep and recover.

We can make the imperative 'more polite' by adding 'do'.

Do be quiet.
Do come.
Do sit down.

Shall

We don't use 'Shall' very frequently in modern English, particularly in American English.
It is used to make offers and suggestions and to ask for advice.

What time shall we meet?

Shall we vote on it now?

What dress shall I wear?

Shall I open the window?

You only really need to know that about 'shall' in modern English. Read the rest of this only if you want to know more about how some older speakers still use 'shall'.

Formerly, in older grammar, 'shall' was used as an alternative to 'will' with 'I' and 'we'. Today, 'will' is normally used. When we do use 'shall', it has an idea of a more personal, subjective future.

I shall go to see the boss and I shall ask him to explain this decision.

Notice that the negative of 'shall' can be 'shall not' or 'shan't' – though the second one is now very rare in American English.

I don't like these people and I shall not go to their party.
I shan't object if you go without me.

Will - other uses

Older textbooks often refer to 'will' as 'the future tense' and this has confused a lot of learners.

It is important to remember that when we talk about the future we cannot always use 'will' and that when we use 'will' we are not always talking about the future.

Here 'will' is clearly referring to the future.

If I speak to her, I'll tell her about it.
I'll probably visit Sue when I go to Oxford.
Next birthday she'll be 32. Or so she says.

In these examples, however, 'will' is referring to events happening at the present.

The car won't start.
If that's the phone, I'll get it.
Will you have another cup of coffee?

When we use 'will' referring to the present, the idea being expressed is usually one of 'showing willingness' or 'will power'.

My baby won't stop crying. I've tried everything and I'm really exhausted.
I am the boss. You will do as I say.
I need quiet to write this but he will keep on talking to me. I wish he would leave me alone.

We use 'will' for requests, orders, invitations and offers.

Will you give me a hand?
Will you please take a seat?
Will you have some cake?
I'll help you.

We use 'will' to make promises or threats.

I'll do it at once.
I'll phone him back immediately.
I won't forget this.
I'll get my own back some day.

We use 'will' for habit.

A cat will always find a warm place to sleep.
My car won't go any faster than this.

We use 'will' for deduction.

I expect he'll want us to get on with it.
The phone's ringing. That will be Mark.

Look again at all of these examples of 'will'. They are all to do with the present or are 'timeless'.

Present forms for the future

We use the present continuous to talk about things that we have already arranged to do in the future.

I've got my ticket. I'm leaving on Thursday.
I'm seeing Julie at 5 and then I'm having dinner with Simon.
He's picking me up at the airport.
The company is giving everyone a bonus for Christmas.

In many situations when we talk about future plans we can use either the present continuous or the 'going to' future. However, when we use the present continuous, there is more of a suggestion that an arrangement has already been made.

I'm going to see him./I'm seeing him.
I'm going to do it./I'm doing it.

We use the present simple to talk about events in the future which are 'timetabled'. We can also use the present continuous to talk about these.

My plane leaves at 6 in the morning.
The shop opens at 9.30.
The sun rises a minute earlier tomorrow.
My plane is leaving at 8.30.
The shop is closing at 7.00.
The sun is rising at 6.32 tomorrow.

Going to or Will?

When we want to talk about future facts or things we believe to be true about the future, we use 'will'.

The President will serve for four years.
The boss won't be very happy.
I'm sure you'll like her.
I'm certain he'll do a good job.

If we are not so certain about the future, we use 'will' with expressions such as 'probably', 'possibly', 'I think', 'I hope'.

I hope you'll visit me in my home one day.
She'll probably be a great success.
I'll possibly come but I may not get back in time.
I think we'll get on well.

If you are making a future prediction based on evidence in the present situation, use 'going to'.

Not a cloud in the sky. It's going to be another warm day.
Look at the queue. We're not going to get in for hours.
The traffic is terrible. We're going to miss our flight.
Be careful! You're going to spill your coffee.

At the moment of making a decision, use 'will'. Once you have made the decision, talk about it using 'going to'.

I'll call Jenny to let her know. Sarah, I need Jenny's number. I'm going to call her about the meeting.
I'll come and have a drink with you but I must let Harry know. Harry, I'm going to have a drink with Simon.

Will - future

Some people have been taught that 'will' is 'the future' in English. This is not correct. Sometimes when we talk about the future we cannot use 'will'. Sometimes when we use 'will' we are not talking about the future.

We can use 'will' to talk about future events we believe to be certain.

The sun will rise over there tomorrow morning.
Next year, I'll be 50.
That plane will be late. It always is.
There won't be any snow. I'm certain. It's too warm.

Often we add 'perhaps', 'maybe', 'probably', 'possibly' to make the belief less certain.

I'll probably come back later.
He'll possibly find out when he sees Jenny.
Maybe it will be OK.
Perhaps we'll meet again some day.

We often use 'will' with 'I think' or 'I hope'.

I think I'll go to bed now.
I think she'll do well in the job.
I hope you'll enjoy your stay.
I hope you won't make too much noise.

We use 'will' at the moment we make a new decision or plan. The thought has just come into our head.

Bye. I'll phone you when I get there.
I'll answer that.
I'll go.
I won't tell him. I promise.

Going to

There is no one 'future tense' in English. There are 4 future forms. The one which is used most often in spoken English is 'going to', not 'will'.

We use 'going to' when we want to talk about a plan for the future.

I'm going to see him later today.
They're going to launch it next month.
We're going to have lunch first.
She's going to see what she can do.
I'm not going to talk for very long.

Notice that this plan does not have to be for the near future.

When I retire I'm going to go back to Barbados to live.
In ten years time, I'm going to be boss of my own successful company.

We use 'going to' when we want to make a prediction based on evidence we can see now.

Look out! That cup is going to fall off.
Look at those black clouds. It's going to rain soon.
These figures are really bad. We're going to make a loss.
You look very tired. You're going to need to stop soon.

We can replace 'going to go' by 'going'.

I'm going out later.
She's going to the exhibition tomorrow.

Past Tense Review 2

We can use the past simple to talk about actions and states which we see as completed in the past.

I left school when I was sixteen.
I was very happy then.
He told me all about his childhood.

We can use the past continuous to talk about past events which went on for a period of time.

While I was driving home, Peter was trying desperately to contact me.
I was thinking about him last night.
I was walking in the street when I suddenly fell over.

We can use the present perfect when we want to look back from the present to the past.

I've broken my watch so I don't know what time it is.
She hasn't arrived yet.
We've been to Singapore a lot over the last few years.
Have you ever been to Argentina?

The Present Perfect Continuous can be used to talk about an action or actions that started in the past and continued until recently or that continue into the future.

You look tired. Have you been sleeping properly?
I've been waiting for him for 30 minutes and he still hasn't arrived.
He's been phoning me all week for an answer.

We can use the past perfect simple to talk about what happened before a point in the past. It looks back from a point in the past to further in the past.

I hadn't known the bad news when I spoke to him.
I thought we had already decided on a name for this product.

We can use the past perfect continuous to look back at a situation in progress.

We had been thinking about buying a new house but then we decided to stay here.
It had been snowing for a while before we left.
She said she had been trying to call me all day.

Past Tense Review 1